The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world’s three early civilizations (along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia) and flourished from approximately 2600 to 1900 BCE. It was remarkable for its advanced urban planning and sophistication.
Here are the key features of the Indus Valley Civilization:
1. Urban Planning and Architecture:
- Grid Pattern Cities: A hallmark of the IVC was its meticulously planned cities, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Streets and lanes cut across one another at right angles, dividing the city into rectangular blocks.
- Citadel and Lower Town: Most large cities were divided into two main parts:
- Citadel (Western Part): A smaller, elevated area, often fortified, believed to house public buildings, religious structures, or the ruling class (e.g., Great Bath, Granaries).
- Lower Town (Eastern Part): A larger, but lower area, where the common people lived.
- Exception: Dholavira is unique for being divided into three parts: citadel, middle town, and lower town.
- Standardized Burnt Bricks: A remarkable feature was the widespread use of baked bricks of uniform size (typically in a ratio of 1:2:4 for thickness, width, and length) across the entire civilization, indicating a high degree of standardization and possibly centralized authority.
- Advanced Drainage System: Harappan cities possessed an unparalleled and sophisticated drainage system. Every house had its own courtyard and bathroom, and wastewater was channeled through covered drains on the main streets, which were connected to larger street drains. This points to a strong emphasis on hygiene and public health.
- Water Supply Systems: Evidence of wells in individual houses and elaborate water harvesting systems (like in Dholavira with its large reservoirs) demonstrates their expertise in water management.
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A large, rectangular public tank, possibly used for ritualistic bathing. It had steps leading down to the water and was made water-tight with layers of natural tar.
- Granaries: Large structures found in cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, used for storing surplus grains, indicating advanced agricultural practices and central management of food resources. Harappa had a row of six granaries.
2. Economy:
- Agriculture: The backbone of the economy. They grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame, lentils, chickpeas, and mustard. Cotton was a significant crop, and the Indus people were among the earliest cultivators of cotton. Evidence of ploughed fields has been found at Kalibangan.
- Domestication of Animals: They domesticated cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, and cats. The humped bull was a significant animal, depicted on seals. Evidence of horses is sparse and debated, mostly from later phases or superficial levels.
- Trade and Commerce: A highly organized and extensive trade network existed, both internal and external.
- Internal Trade: With regions like Rajasthan (for copper), Karnataka (for gold), and Baluchistan.
- External Trade: With Mesopotamia (Iraq), Iran, Central Asia, Oman, and Bahrain. Lothal, an important port city, likely had a dockyard. Trade was conducted through a barter system.
- Standardized Weights and Measures: A uniform system of weights (primarily based on multiples of 16, e.g., 16, 32, 64) and measures (using sticks with markings) was used across the civilization, facilitating trade.
- Craft Production: Highly skilled artisans produced a wide range of goods:
- Metallurgy: They were well-acquainted with copper, bronze, lead, and tin. Tools, weapons, and utensils were made from these metals. Iron was unknown.
- Pottery: Fine, wheel-made pottery, often plain red or painted with black geometric and floral designs.
- Seal Making: Intricately carved seals, typically made of steatite, depicting animals (unicorn, bull, tiger, elephant) and undeciphered script. These were likely used for trade and administrative purposes.
- Bead Making: Chanhudaro and Lothal were centers for bead making, using carnelian, lapis lazuli, and steatite.
- Terracotta Figurines: Numerous terracotta figurines of the Mother Goddess, toy carts, animals, and other human figures.
3. Society and Culture:
- Social Stratification (Inferred): The division of cities into a citadel and lower town suggests some form of social hierarchy, possibly with a ruling elite or priestly class.
- Absence of Monumental Structures: Unlike contemporary civilizations (Egypt with pyramids, Mesopotamia with ziggurats), there’s no conclusive evidence of large temples, palaces, or elaborate burial complexes for rulers. This suggests a less autocratic or theocratic society.
- Religious Beliefs (Inferred from figurines and seals):
- Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines suggest the worship of a Mother Goddess, representing fertility.
- Pashupati Mahadeva: A seal depicting a horned deity in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, deer), is often identified as an early form of Lord Shiva.
- Nature Worship: Evidence of tree (especially peepal) and animal worship.
- Fire Altars: Found at sites like Kalibangan and Lothal, suggesting fire cult practices.
- Undeciphered Script: The Harappan script is pictographic, consisting of around 400-600 signs. It has not yet been deciphered, making it challenging to understand their literature, administration, or specific historical events. It was written from right to left.
- Burial Practices: Various burial methods were observed, including complete burial, fractional burial, and post-cremation burial. Coffins have been found at Harappa.
- Art and Craft: Besides seals and pottery, they produced bronze sculptures (like the famous “Dancing Girl” from Mohenjo-Daro) and steatite figures (like the “Priest-King” from Mohenjo-Daro).
4. Technology and Innovation:
- Precision and Standardization: Evident in their bricks, weights, and city planning.
- Metallurgy: Knowledge of copper, bronze, lead, and tin, and techniques like the lost-wax casting method for bronze figures.
- Navigation: Evidence of dockyards (Lothal) and coastal settlements suggests their ability to navigate the Arabian Sea for trade.
- Ploughing: Furrows found at Kalibangan indicate the use of wooden ploughs.